Augustus
Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (Latin: Octavianus), was the founder of the Roman Empire and the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult and an era of imperial peace (the Pax Romana or Pax Augusta) in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The principate, a style of government where the emperor showed nominal deference to the Senate, was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century.
Octavian was born into an equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia. Following the assassination of his great-uncle, the dictator Julius Caesar, in 44 BC, Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his primary heir. Inheriting Caesar's estate and assuming his name, Octavian fought for the loyalty of Caesar's legions. He was made a senator during a state emergency and seized power by marching on Rome in 43 BC, becoming its youngest elected consul. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed a triumvirate regime with legally sanctioned powers to outlaw and oppose the assassins of Caesar and their allies. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, the triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto autocrats. The triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC for opposing Octavian in Sicily, while Antony was defeated in Greece by Octavian's naval commander Marcus Agrippa at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and his wife Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, killed themselves during Octavian's invasion of Egypt, which then became Octavian's personal property.
After the demise of the triumvirate, Augustus reached an accord with the remaining Roman elite: he would restore the facade of a free republic, centered around the Senate, the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies. But his control of the military and half of Rome's provinces meant he maintained autocratic power legitimized by his appointment as commander-in-chief of most Roman armies. To avoid the appearance of monarchy or dictatorship, he eventually refused to stand for reelection to the consulship, but was granted the powers of the tribunate and censorship by the Senate. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself princeps ('first citizen'), juxtaposed with his acceptance of the name Augustus ('the revered'). The Senate also granted him the title of pater patriae (lit. 'father of the country'), and named the month of August after him. After the death of Lepidus, Augustus also assumed the title of pontifex maximus ('supreme pontiff').
Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania. His expansionism, however, suffered a major setback in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of client states and negotiated peace treaties with the Parthian Empire and Kingdom of Kush. He reformed the Roman system of taxation and currency, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing professional army, established the Praetorian Guard as well as official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and renovated much of the city during his reign. Augustus was a writer and patron of poets such as Virgil, and has been featured in various works of art from ancient to modern times. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75 from natural causes, and was posthumously deified by decree of the Senate. Persistent rumors have claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adoptive son Tiberius, Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, Julia.
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